Emna Melliti, Alma Mejri and Hamza Elfil
Desalination and Natural Water Valorization Laboratory (LaDVEN), Water Researches and Technologies Center (CERTE), Soliman, Tunisia

Chapter DOI: 10.52305/VJZP3842
Part of the Book: Advances in Environmental Research. Volume 92

Abstract

Nowadays, calcium sulfatesare attracting widespread interest due to their exceptional proprieties including easy fabrication, low cost, environmental friendless, and low thermal conductivity. Especially, gypsum is extracted extensively for use as a crucial component in plaster and cementindustries, as well as food and agriculture sectors. However, calcium sulfates could cause major damages in several industrial processes that rely on water-handling systems such as water desalination, oil and gas production, etc. In fact, the precipitation of calcium sulfate phases leads to the deposition of undesired solids in pipes, filters, membranes, and heat exchangers, thus forming mineral scales. The removing or cleaning process of the formed scale is extremely expensive and affects the efficiency and lifetime of separation technologies. In this context, the foremost aim of this chapter is to review the current state of knowledge on the formation approaches (nucleation, crystal growth) and the properties of calcium sulfates. Furthermore, the problems of calcium sulfate scale and methods of its inhibition are discussed. To give the reader clearer vision, calcium sulfate application fields have been described in this work.

Keywords: calcium sulfates, nucleation, crystal growth, solubility, diagram phases, precipitation water treatment, cement, plasters

References

Alexander E.S. Van Driessche, Tomasz M. Stawski, Liane G. Benning, and Matthias Keller Meier (2017) Calcium Sulfate Precipitation Throughout Its Phase Diagram, Springer International Publishing Switzerland.

Aldrich D.G., Jr., and W.R. Schoonoever. 1951. Gypsum and other sulfur materials for soil conditioning. Calif. Agric. Expt. Sta. circular No. 403.

Amezketa E., Arags R., Gazol R., (2005) Efficiency of Sulfuric Acid, Mined Gypsum, and Two Gypsum By-Products in Soil Crusting Prevention and Sodic Soil Reclamation, American Society of Agronomy columns.

Amiri, M. Moghadasi, Jamialahmadi J.M., Pordel Shahri M., The Study of Calcium Sulfate Scale Formation during Water Injection in Iranian Oil Fields at Different Pressures, Energy Sources, Part A, 35:648658, 2013.

Antony A., Low J.H., Gray S., Childress A.E., Le-Clech P., Leslie G. Scale formation and control in high pressure membrane water treatmentsystems: a review. J. Membr. Sci. 383 (2011): 1-16.

Aquilano D., Otlora F., Pastero L., Garca-Ruiz J.M. Three study cases of growth morphology in minerals: Halite, Calcite and gypsum. 2016 Progress in Crystal Growthand Characterization of Materials 62 227251228.

Azimi G., Papangelakis V.G., Dutrizac J.E. (2007) Modelling of calcium sulphatesolubilityin concentrated multi-component sulphate solutions. Fluid Phase Equilib 260:300315.

Azimi G., Papangelakis V.G. (2010) The solubilityof gypsum and anhydrite in simulated laterite pressure acid leach solutions up to 250 C. Hydrometallurgy 102:113.

Becker A., Stje I., Paulmann C., Beckmann F., Donath T., Boese R., Prymak O., Tiemann H., Epple M. (2005) Calcium sulphate hemihydrate is the inorganic mineral in statoliths of scyphozoan medusae (Cnidaria). Dalton Trans 8:15451550.

Bin Merdhan A.B. (2010) Inhibition of calcium sulfate strontium sulfate scale in water flood, SPE Production and Operations.

Block J., Waters O.B. (1968) The CaSO4-Na2SO4-NaCl-H2O system at 25C to 100C. J Chem Eng Data 13:336-344.

Blount C.W., Dickson F.W. (1973) Gypsum-anhydrite equilibria in systems CaSO4 H2O and CaSO4 -NaCl-H2O. Am Mineral 58: 323331C.

Blount C.W., Dickson F.W. (1969) The solubilityof anhydrite (CaSO4) in NaClH2O from 100 to 450C and 1 to 1000 bars. Geochim Cosmochim Acta 33: 227245.

Boelmann F., Epple M., Stje I, Tiemann H. (2007) Statoliths of calcium sulfate hemihydrate are used for gravity sensing in rhopaliophoran medusae (Cnidaria). In: Baeuerlein E (ed) Biomineralisation: biological aspects and structure formation. Wiley-VCH, Weinheim, pp 261272.

Boyer-Guillon M. (1900) Etude sur la solubilite du sulfate de chaux. Extrait des Annales du conservatoire des Arts et Metiers / Study on the solubilityof sulphate of lime. Extract from the Annals of the Conservatory of Arts and Crafts, 3rd series, volume II.

Bock E. (1961) On the solubilityof anhydrous calcium sulphateand of gypsum in concentrated solutions of sodium chloride at 25C. Can J Chem 39:17461751.

Chang L., Howie R., Zussman J (1996) Rock-forming minerals, Vol. 5B: Non-silicates, longman scientic and technical. Harlow, 383 pp.

Chernov A.A., Zaitseva N.P., Rashkovich L N. Secondary nucleationinduced by the cracking of a growing crystal: KH 2PO4 (KDP) and K(H,D) 2PO 4 (DKDP). J. Cryst. Growth 102 (1990): 793-800.

Chernov A.A., Moder Crystallography III, Part I. Edited by Springer Verlag. Berlin Heidelberg, 1984.

Chianese A., Contaldi A., Mazzarotta B. Primary Nucleationof Sodium Perborate in Aqueous Solutions. J. Cryst. Growth 78 (1986): 279-90.

Christoffersen M.R., Christoffersen J., Weijnen M.P.C., Van Rosmalen G.M. Crystal growth of calcium sulphatedihydrate at low supersaturation. J. Cryst. Growth 58 (1982): 585-95.

Christensen A.N., Jensen T.R., Nonat A., 2010. A new calcium sulfate hemihydrate. Dalton Trans. 39, 20442048.

Cruft E.F., Chao P.C. (1970) Nucleationkinetics of the gypsum-anhydrite system. In: 3rd symposium on salt, Northern Ohio geological society proceedings, vol 1, pp 109118.

Conley R.F., Bundy W.M. (1958) Mechanism of gypsification. Geochim Cosmochim Acta 15:5772.

Daniela Freyer, Wolfgang Voigt (2003) Crystallization and Phase Stability of CaSO4 and CaSO4 Based Salts. Institut fur Anorganische Chemie, TU Bergakademie Freiberg, D-09596 Freiberg, Germany.

De Jong W.F., Bouman J. Zeitschrift Fr Kristallographi. 100 (1938).

Dickson F.W., Blount C.W., Tunell G. (1963) Use of hydrothermal solution equipment to determine the solubilityof anhydrite in water from 100C to 275C and from 1 bar to 1000 bars pressure. Am J Sci 261:6178.

Dring R., Becker W. Kinetische behandlung der keimbildung in bersttigten dmpfen. Wiley-VCH Verlag & Company. 416 (1935): 719-52.

Elfil H., Manzola A.S., Benamor M. (2003) Decarbonation of geothermal waters by seeding with aragonite crystals coupled with air bubbling Applied geochemistry 18 (8), 1137-1148.

Elfil H., Roques H. (2004) Prediction of the limit of the metastable zone in the CaCO3CO2H2O system. AIChE J. 50: 1908 -16.

Eroini V., Neville A., Kapur N., Euvrard M. New insight into the relation between bulk precipitation and surface deposition of calcium carbonate mineral scale. Desalin. Water Treat. 51 (2013): 88291.

Fan C., Kan A.T., Fu G., Tomson M.B. (2010) Quantitative evaluation of calcium sulfate precipitation kinetics in the presence and absence of scale inhibitors. SPE J 15:977988.

Farkas L. Keimbildungsgeschwindigkeit in bersttigten Dmpfen. Z. Phys. Chem. (1927): 1927-12513.

Freyer D, Voigt W (2003) Crystallization and phase stability of CaSO4 and CaSO4-based salts. Monatsh Chem 134:693719.

Follner S., Wolter A., Preusser A., Indris S., Silber C., Follner H., 2002. The Setting Behaviour of and CaSO4 0,5H2O as a Function of Crystal Structure and Morphology. Cryst. Res. Technol., 37, 1075.

Gibbs J.W. The collected works of J. Willard Gibbs, Volume I: thermodynamics. Yale University Press. Yale, 1928.

Harrell J.A., (2017). Amarna gypsite: A new source of gypsum for ancient Egypt. J. Archaeol. Sci. Rep. 11, 536545.

Hamid G., Khelifa H., Mohamed G. (2016) Effect of Calcium Sulphateon the Geotechnical Properties of Stabilized Clayey Soils. January 2016. Periodica Polytechnica Civil Engineering 61(2).

Hamdona S., Al Hadad, O. (2008). Influence of additives on the precipitation of gypsum in sodium chloride solutions. Desalination 228, 277-286.

Hasson D., Drak A., Semiat R. (2001) Inception of CaSO4 scaling on RO membranes at various water recovery levels. Desalination 139: 73-81.

Hchaichi H., Elfil H., Guichardon P., Hannachi A. (2013) Scaling tendency assessment in reverse osmosis modules. Desalination Water Treat. 51: 892-98.

He S., Oddo J.E., Tomson M.B. (1994) The nucleationkinetics of calcium sulfate dihydrate in NaCl solutions up to 6 m and 90C. J Collloid Interface Sci 162:297-303.

Hill A.E. (1937) The transition temperature of gypsum to anhydrite. J Am Chem Soc 59:2242

Innorta G., Rabbi E., Tomadin L. (1980) The gypsum-anhydrite equilibrium by solubilitymeasurements. Geochim Cosmochim Acta 44:19311936.

Jawed J., J., Taylor H.F.W., (1978)0 Studies on hydration of cement Recent developments, World Cem. Technol. September 183193).

Kashchiev, D., (2000). Nucleation: Basic Theory with Applications. Butterworth, Heinemann, Oxford.

Kan, A.T, Fu G., Fan Ch., Tomson M.B, Shen D. (2010) Quantitative evaluation of calcium sulfate precipitation kinetics in the presence and absence of scale inhibitors. SPE 121563.

Kerstin Elert, Cristina Benavides-Reyes, Carolina Cardell, Effect of animal glue on mineralogy, strength and weathering resistance of calcium sulfate-based composite materials.

Kingery, W.D., Vandiver, P.B, Prickett, M., (1988). The Beginnings of Pyrotechnology, Part II: Production and Use of Lime and Gypsum Plaster in the Pre-Pottery Neolithic near East. Journal of Field Archaeology, 15, 219-244.

Klepetsanis P.G., koutsoukos P.G. Precipitation of calcium sulfate dihydrate at constant calcium activity. J. Cryst. Growth 98 (1989): 480-86.

Klepetsanis P.G., Dalas E., Koutsoukos P.G. Role of temperature in the spontaneous precipitation of calcium sulfate dehydrate. Langmuir. 15 (1999): 1534-40.

Klein J.P., Boistelle R. Cristallisation: Aspects thoriques sciences fondamentales des techniques de lingnieur, trait gnie et procds chimiques/Crystallization: Theoretical aspects fundamental sciences of engineering techniques, treaty engineering and chemical processes. J1500 (1989): 1-21.

Kontrec J., Kralj D., Breevi L. (2002) Transformation of anhydrous calcium sulphateinto calcium sulphate dihydrate in aqueous solutions. J Cryst Growth 240:203211.

Kuthadi S.K. (2015) Laboratory scale study of calcium sulfate hydration forms. MS thesis Western Kentucky University,

Lancia A., Musmarra D., Prisciandaro M. (1999) Measuring induction period for calcium sulfate dihydrate precipitation. AIChE J 45:390397.

Lee S., Lee C.H. Effect of operating conditions on caso4 scale formation mechanism in nanofiltration for water softening. Water Res. 34 (2000): 3854-66.

Le Dantec T., 2016. Gypsum external renderings of Paris: history and fabrication. Further Studies in the History of Construction: Proceedings of the Third Conference of the Construction History Society, 2016, 978-0-9928751-2-1.

Lindsay, W.L. 1979. Chemical equilibria in soils. John Wiley and Sons, NewYork. F.M. Lea, Chemistry of Cementand Concrete, 4th ed., Arnold, London, 1998.

Lucas A., Harris J., 2012. Ancient Egyptian Materials and Industries, Dover 759 Publications Inc., Mineola (New York), 760.

Laurent L. Nuclation et transition de phase en chimie pharmaceutique. Thse de Doctorat [Nucleationand phase transition in pharmaceutical chemistry. Doctoral thesis], Universit Paul Czanne, France 2002.

Lucas A., Harris J., 2012. Ancient Egyptian Materials and Industries, Dover 759 Publications Inc., Mineola (New York), 760.

Mackay, J.E. (2003) Modeling in-situ scale deposition: The impact of reservoir and well geometries and kinetic reaction rates. SPE Produc. Facil. 18:4556.

Madgin W.M., Swayles D.A. (1956) Solubilities in the system CaSO4-NaCl-H2O at 25 and 35C. J Appl Chem 6:482487.

Matin A., Rahman F., Shafi H.Z., Zubair, S.M. Scaling of reverse osmosis membranes used in water desalination: phenomena, impact, and control; future directions. Desalination 455 (2019): 13557.

Massaro F.R., Rubbo M., Aquilano D., Theoretical equilibrium morphology of gypsum (CaSO4 2H2O). 2. The stepped faces of the [001] main zone, Crystal GrowthDes. 11 (5) (2011) 1607 1614.

Markov I.V. Crystal Growthfor Beginners: Fundamentals of Nucleation, Crystal Growth and Epitaxy. Edited by Word scientific. Bulgaria, 1995.

Marignac C. (1874) Ueber die Lslichkeit des schwefelsauren kalkes in wasser [On the solubilityof sulphate of lime in water]. Z Anal Cam 13: 5759.

Marshall W.L., Slusher R. (1966) Thermodynamicsof Calcium Sulfate Dihydrate in Aqueous sodium chloride solutions, 0 110C. J Phys Chem 70: 4015- 4027.

Marignac C. (1874) Ueber die Lslichkeit des schwefelsauren kalkes in wasser. Z Anal Cam 13: 5759.

Melliti E., Touati K., Van der Bruggen B., Elfil H. (2021) Effect of Fe2+ ions on gypsum precipitation during bulk crystallization of reverse osmosis concentrates. Chemosphere 32814139.

Melliti E., Van der Bruggen B., Elfil H. (2022) Combined iron oxides and gypsum fouling of reverse osmosis membranes during desalination process Journal of Membrane Science 653, 120472.

Momma K., Izumi F. (2011) VESTA 3 for three-dimensional visualization of crystal, volumetric and morphology data. J Appl Crystallogr 44:12721276.

Monnin C. (1990) The influence of pressure on the activity-coefficients of the solutes and on the solubilityof minerals in the system Na-Ca- Cl-SO4-H2O to 200C and 1 kbar, and to high NaCl concentration. Geochim Cosmochim Acta 54:32653282.

Mullin J.W. Crystallization. Edited by Butterworth-Heinemann. Oxford: Boston, 2001. Reclamation of Saline Soils Using Calcium Sulfate Residues from the Titanium Industry. Author(s): Mourhaf Kayasseh and Charles Schenck Source: Ambio, Vol. 18, No. 2 (1989), pp. 124-127Published.

Noyes A.A., Whiteney W.R. The rate of solution of solid substances in their own solution. J. Am. Chem. Soc 19 (1897): 930-34.

Onorato E. The fine structure of gypsum Ca2SO42H2O. Zeitshift fur kristllographie kristalgeometrie kristalphysik, kristallemchemie 1929 (1929): 277-325.

Ossorio M., Van Driessche A.E.S., Prez P., Garca-Ruiz J.M. (2014) The gypsum-anhydrite paradox revisited. Chem Geol 386:1621.

Ochando-Pulido J.M., Victor-Ortega M.D., Martnez-Ferez A. On the cleaning procedure of a hydrophilic reverse osmosis membrane fouled by secondary-treated olive mill waste water. Chem. Eng. J. 260 (2015): 142-51.

Partridge E., White A.H. (1929) The solubilityof calcium sulfate from 0 to 200C. J Am Chem Soc 51:360370.

Posnjak E (1938) The system CaSO4H2O. Am J Sci 35:247272 Developments on Calcium Sulfate Scaling Prediction and Control in Oil and Gas ProductionSamridhdi Paudyal, Sana Mateen, Chong Dai, Saebom Ko, Xin

Power W.H., Fabuss B.M., Satterfield C.N. (1966) Transient solute concentrations and phase changes of calcium sulfate in aqueous sodium chloride. J Chem Eng Data 11:149154.

Prisciandaro M., Lancia A., Musmarra D. (2001a) Calcium sulphate dihydrate nucleationin the presence of calcium and sodium chloride salts. Ind Eng Chem Res 40:23352339.

Prisciandaro M., Lancia A., Musmarra D. (2001b) Gypsum nucleationinto sodium chloride solutions. AIChE J 47:929934.

Prisciandaro M., Lancia A., Musmarra D. (2003) The retarding effect of citric acid on calcium sulfate nucleationkinetics. Ind Eng Chem Res 42:66476652.

Pritzel C., Kowald T., Sakalli Y., Trettin R, (2018) Binding m.aterials based on calcium sulphates, North Carolina State University (NCSU) Libraries.

Raupenstrauch G.A. (1885) Uber die Bestimmungder loslichkeit einiger salze in wasser bei verschiedenen temperaturen. Monatsh Chem 6:563591.

Ryan W.B.F. (2009) Decoding the Mediterranean salinity crisis. Sedimentology 56:95136.

Rashad M.M., Mahmoud M.H.H., Ibrahim I.A., Abdel-Aal E.A. (2004) Crystallization of calcium sulfate dihydrate under simulated conditions of phosphoric acid production in the presence of aluminum and magnesium ions. J Cryst Growth 267:372379.

Sangwal K. On the mechanism of crystal growthfrom solutions. J. Cryst. Growth 192 (1998): 20014.

Schierholtz O.J. (1958) The crystallization of calcium sulphatedihydrate. Can J Chem 36:10571063.

Schubert H., Mersmann A. Determination of heterogeneous nucleationrates. Trans IChem E 74 A (1996): 821-27.

Sheikholeslami R. Calcium sulfate fouling-precipitation of particulate: a proposed composite model. Heat Transfer Eng 21 (2000): 24.

Singh, N.B., Middendorf, B., 2008. Calcium sulphate hemihydrate hydration leading to gypsum crystallization. Prog. Cryst. Growth & Charact. 53, 57-77.

Stark, J., Wicht, B., 1999. The history of gypsum and gypsum plaster. Zement-Kalk-Gips International, 52, 527-533.

Smith B.R., Sweett F (1971) The crystallization of calcium sulfate dihydrate. J Colloid Interface Sci 37:612618.

Shenvi S.S., Isloor A.M., Ismail A.F. A Review on RO membrane technology: developments and challenges. Desalination 358 (2015): 10-26.

Shainberg, I., M.E. Sumner, W.P. Miller, M.P.W. Farina, M.A. Pavan, and M.V. Fey. 1989. Use of gypsum on soils: A review, pp. 1-111. IN: B.A. Stewart (ed.), Advances in Soil Science, Vol. 9, Springer-Verlag New York.

Sumner, M.E. and W.P. Miller. 1992. Soil crusting in relation to global soil degredation. J. Altern. Agric. 7:56-62.

Tiemann H., Stje I., Jarms G., Paulmann C., Epple M., Hasse B. (2002) Calcium sulphate hemihydrate in statoliths of deep-sea medusae. J Chem Soc Dalton Trans 7:12661268.

Tilden W.A., Shenstone W.A. (1984) On the solubilityof salts in water at high temperatures. Philos Trans R Soc 175A:31.

Touati K., Alia E., Zendah H., Elfil H., Hannachi, A. (2018) Sand filters scaling by calcium carbonate precipitation during groundwater reverse osmosis Desalination 430, 24-32.

Touati K., Hila M., Malkhouf K., Elfil H. Study of fouling in two-stage reverse osmosis desalination unit operating without an inlet pH adjustment: diagnosis and implications. Water Supply 17 (2017): 1682.

Tong T., Elimelech M. The global rise of zero liquid discharge for wastewater management: drivers, technologies, and future directions. Environ. Sci. Technol 50 (2016): 6846-55.

Traynor, J. 1980. Ideas in soil and plant nutrition. Kovak Books, Bakersfield, CA.

Vant Hoff J.H., Armstrong E.F., Hinrichsen W., Weigert F., Just G. (1903) Gips und anhydrit. Z Phys Chem 45:257.

Volmer M., Weber . Keimbildung in bersttigten Gebilden. [Nucleationin Supersaturated Structures.] International journal of research in physical chemistry and chemical physics (1926): 1926-11927.

Warren J.K. (2006) Evaporites: sediments, resources and hydrocarbons. Springer, Berlin.

Wooster W.A. On the crystal structure of gypsum, CaSO42H2O Zeitschrift fr Kristallographie Crystalline Materials 94 (1936): 375-96.

Wang, Guannan Deng, Alex Lu, Yue Zhao, OuyangBingjie, Amy T. Kan, and Mason B. Tomson, Brine Chemistry Consortium, RiceUniversity.

Warren J.K. (2006) Evaporites: sediments, resources and hydrocarbons. Springer, Berlin.

Weiss, H., Bru M.F., 2009. How Much Water Does Calcined Gypsum Contain? Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 48, 3520 3524.

Wallace, A., and S.D. Nelson. 1986. Special issue on water-soluble polymer soil conditioners. Soil Sci. 141:311-397.

Zhang H., Banfield J.F. (2012) Energy calculations predict nanoparticle attachment orientations and asymmetric crystal formation. J Phys Chem Lett 3:28822886.

Zen E. (1965) Solubilitymeasurements in the system CaSO4 NaClH2O at 35 50 and 70C and one atmosphere pressure. J Petrol 6:124164.